Risen Hope

Taking a short break from all writing to bring you this very short 3 minute video. Enjoy!

I mentioned in an earlier post that one of the most accepted facts by scholars is that Jesus died by crucifixion. Today I want to see why this is the case and I will do so by looking in more detail at the grid I built based on historical guidelines in this post.

Where MIS stands for Multiple, Independent Sources for Jesus’ death, we can enumerate those sources here:

1. Gospel of Matthew*
2. Gospel of Mark*
3. Gospel of Luke*
4. Gospel of John*
5. Acts*
6. 1 Corinthians (specifically the creedal statement in 15:3-7)
7. Tacitus
8. Suetonius
9. The Talmud
10. Josephus
11. Lucian of Samosata
12. Mara bar-Serapion
13. Acts of Pilate
14. Thallus

So there are fourteen independent and multiple sources that record Jesus died by crucifixion. This is quite a lot of corroboration. Typically, historians are thrilled when they can get two to three ancient, multiple, independent sources backing up a particular fact, but in this case, there is an overwhelming amount of documentation.

This amount of support led someone like the skeptical scholar John Dominic Crossan to say that Jesus’ crucifixion is as “sure as anything historical can ever be.”[1] It also caused the atheist New Testament scholar Gerd Lüdemann to say “Jesus’ death as a consequence of crucifixion is indisputable.”[2]

1. John Dominic Crossan, Jesus: A Revolutionary Biography (San Francisco: HarperCollings, 1991), 145.
2. Gerd Lüdemann. The Resurrection of Christ (Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 2004), 50.

* Critical scholar’s tend not to accept the four Gospels or Acts. However, they are each independent documents and each independently mention the death of Jesus and so I included them in this list. Even if we remove those from the list, there is still an overwhelming amount of sources that confirm Jesus’ death.

What makes the minimal facts the minimal facts? How do we know that a particular event in the past ought to be considered a fact? Historians use certain general guidelines to allow them to identify when something is a fact and when it is not.

Yesterday, I listed five facts for the resurrection of Jesus. Today, I will attempt to demonstrate why those are considered facts, even by those scholars who do not grant that Jesus rose from the dead (more about the trouble this poses in a future post).

Please keep in mind that these are guidelines and not hard and fast rules. Judgment is required along with taking as much into consideration as possible when determining if something is a fact of history or not. Historical scholars use these guides to help them work through this process when dealing with historical evidences.

Here are some of the principles used to support historical claims:

1. Are there multiple, independent sources? [MIS]
2. Are there any enemies that affirm the event or evidence? [EA]
3. Are there embarrassing admissions by those who are favorable towards the event or evidence? [Emb]
4. Are there any eyewitnesses? [Eye]
5. Are the testimonies and/or sources early in time (close to when the events occurred)? [Early]

So how does the five minimal facts stack up when these questions are applied to each of the facts? Let me remind you of what the five facts are:

1. Jesus died by crucifixion. [Jesus]
2. The disciples believed they saw Jesus alive after his death. [Disciples]
3. The conversion of the church persecutor Paul. [Paul]
4. The conversion of the skeptic and half-brother of Jesus, James. [James]
5. The empty tomb. [Tomb]

I’ll use a grid to graphically layout how these facts grade out against the historical guidelines. The historical principles will be left-to-right across the top of the grid while the minimal facts will go down the left hand-side of the grid. Due to spacing issues on this page, I’ll refer to each in short-hand.

As you can see, this list of data hits on a multiple of the historical guidelines for being considered historical fact. As a result, this has led the vast majority of scholars (even the skeptical ones) to:

1. Conclude that the data are strongly evidenced, and
2. Grant that this is historical evidence that must be accounted for in any hypothesis regarding Jesus post-crucifixion.

Today is a summary of the two ancient Gentile sources that were discussed the last two posts. This included Lucian of Samosata [L] and Mara bar-Serapion [M].

1. Jesus was worshipped by the Christians. [L]
2. Jesus introduced new teachings in Palestine. [L]
3. He was crucified because of his teachings. [L]
4. Christians believed all believers were brothers. [L]
5. They believed this brotherhood occurred from the moment of conversion taking place. [L]
6. Further, it occurred after denying false gods. [L]
7. These teachings included worshipping Jesus, and [L, M]
8. Living according to his laws. [L, M]
9. Lucian refers to Jesus as a "sage" which, in a Greek context would be equivalent to a "wise man" or "philosopher" and Mara bar-Serapion adds virtuous man. [L, M]
10. Christians were followers of Jesus. [L]
11. Christians believed themselves to be immortal. [L]
12. Christians accepted Jesus' teachings by faith. [L, M]
13. Christians practiced their faith by disregarding material possessions. [L]
14. Christians had "sacred books" which were frequently read. [L]
15. When something affected their community, they spare no trouble, no expense. [L]
16. Because of this, they were taken advantage of by con-men. [L]
17. He twice is called the Jew's King. This is perhaps a reference to Jesus' own teaching about himself or of the notice posted above his head on the titulus while he hung on the cross. [M]
18. The punishment the Jews received was a result of their executing an innocent man. [M]

In an attempt to motivate his son, Serapion, to become like the wise teachers of the past, Mara bar-Serapion writes a letter while in prison. A fragment of this letter is preserved in the British Museum and is dated to between 73 A.D. and the 3rd century A.D.

What advantage did the Athenians gain from putting Socrates to death? Famine and plague came upon them as a judgment for their crime. What advantage did the men of Samos gain from burning Pythagoras? In a moment their land was covered with sand. What advantage did the Jews gain from executing their wise King? It was just after that their Kingdom was abolished. God justly avenged these three wise men: the Athenians died of hunger; the Samians were overwhelmed by the sea; the Jews, ruined and driven from their land, live in complete dispersion. But Socrates did not die for good; he lived on in the teaching of Plato. Pythagoras did not die for good; he lived on in the statue of Hera. Nor did the wise King die for good; He lived on in the teaching which He had given.[1]

We learn a few things from this short passage[2]:

1. Jesus is considered to be a wise and virtuous man.
2. He twice is called the Jew's King. This is perhaps a reference to Jesus' own teaching about himself or of the notice posted above his head on the titulus while he hung on the cross.
3. The punishment the Jews received was a result of their executing an innocent man.
4. Jesus' teachings lived on in the life and work of his disciples.

1. Mara bar-Serapion
2. Habermas, Gary R. The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ. Joplin, MO: College Press Publishing, 2008, 207-208.

We have come quite far in this series so far and today we begin looking at the non-biblical ancient Gentile sources that mention Jesus and his followers. The first source that fits this criteria is Lucian of Samosata, a Greek satirical playwright from the second century AD.

In his play The Death of Peregrine[1], Lucian set out to satirize Christians by making them look gullible for their beliefs. In one such scene, he writes:

It was then that he learned the wondrous lore of the Christians, by associating with their priests and scribes in Palestine.   And-how else could it be?-in a trice he made them all look like children, for he was prophet, cult-leader, head of the synagogue, and everything, all by himself. He inter preted and explained some of their books and even composed many, and they revered him as a god, made use of him as a lawgiver, and set him down as a protector, next after that other, to be sure, whom they still worship, the man who was crucified in Palestine because he introduced this new cult into the world.

Then at length Proteus was apprehended for this and thrown into prison, which itself gave him no little reputation as an asset for his future career and the charlatanism and notoriety-seeking that he was enamoured of. Well, when he had been imprisoned, the Christians, regarding the incident as a calamity, left nothing undone in the effort to rescue him Then, as this was impossible, every other form of attention was shown him, not in any casual way but with assiduity, and from the very break of day aged widows and orphan children could be seen waiting near the prison, while their officials even slept inside with him after bribing the guards. Then elaborate meals were brought in, and sacred books of theirs were read aloud, and excellent Peregrinus-for he still went by that name-was called by them 'the new Socrates.'

Indeed, people came even from the cities in Asia, sent by the Christians at their common expense, to succour and defend and encourage the hero. They show incredible speed whenever any such public action is taken; for in no time they lavish their all.  So it was then in the case of Peregrinus; much money came to him from them by reason of his imprisonment, and he procured not a little revenue from it. The poor wretches have convinced themselves, first and foremost, that they are going to be immortal and live for all time, in consequence of which they despise death and even willingly give themselves into custody; most of them. Furthermore, their first lawgiver persuaded them that they are all brothers of one another after they have transgressed once, for all by denying the Greek gods and by worshipping that crucified sophist himself and living under his laws. Therefore they despise all things indiscriminately and consider them common property, receiving such doctrines traditionally without any definite evidence. So if any charlatan and trickster, able to profit by occasions, comes among them, he quickly acquires sudden wealth by imposing upon simple folk....

He left home, then, for the second time, to roam about, possessing an ample source of funds in the Christians, through whose ministrations he lived in unalloyed prosperity. For a time he battened himself thus; but then, after he had transgressed in some way even against them-he was seen, I think, eating some of the food that is forbidden them, they no longer accepted him, and so, being at a loss, he thought he must sing a palinode and demand his possessions back from his city. Submitting a petition, he expected to recover them by order of the Emperor. Then, as the city sent representatives to oppose the claim, he achieved nothing, but was directed to abide by what he had once for all determined, under no compulsion from anyone.[2]

Lucian paints a picture here of the early Christians. They were simpletons and easy to take advantage of. All one had to do was to pretend to be one of them and they were known to lavish attention and assistance upon the imposter, even to the point of giving them money and other physical necessities without much discrimination - even if the individual was able to profit from it.

In this short section, we see Lucian touch on several facts regarding Jesus and the Christians[3]:

1. Jesus was worshipped by the Christians.
2. Jesus introduced new teachings in Palestine.
3. He was crucified because of his teachings.
4. Christians believed all believers were brothers.
5. They believed this brotherhood occurred from the moment of conversion taking place.
6. Further, it occurred after denying false gods.
7. These teachings included worshipping Jesus, and
8. Living according to his laws.
9. Lucian refers to Jesus as a "sage" which, in a Greek context would be equivalent to a "wise man" or "philosopher."
10. Christians were followers of Jesus.
11. Christians believed themselves to be immortal.
12. Christians accepted Jesus' teachings by faith.
13. Christians practiced their faith by disregarding material possessions.
14. Christians had "sacred books" which were frequently read.
15. When something affected their community, they spare no trouble, no expense.
16. Because of this, they were taken advantage of by con-men.

1. Also known as The Passing of Peregrinus.
2. Lucian of Samosata, The Passing of Peregrinus, 11-13, 16.
3. Habermas, Gary R. The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ. Joplin, MO: College Press Publishing, 2008, 206-207.

The last couple of posts have briefly reviewed the ancient Jewish sources and what they reveal about Jesus and his followers. Today will be a summary of that data before looking at Gentile sources beginning tomorrow. The two Jewish sources we viewed were the Talmud [Ta] and the Toledoth Jesu [TJ].

1. Jesus' death was by crucifixion (hanging). [Ta]
2. The time of this event was on the eve of Passover. [Ta]
3. For a forty day period it was announced that Jesus would be stoned. This is consistent with Jewish practice and though it is not recorded explicitly in the New Testament, there seem to be glimpses of this being recorded (John 8:58-59; 10:31-33, 39). [Ta]
4. Jesus was judged to be guilty of "sorcery" and spiritual apostasy in leading Israel astray by  his teaching. [Ta]
5. He lacked anyone coming to his defense and as a result he was killed. [Ta]
6. Jesus died and was buried in Joseph's tomb. [TJ]
7. The Jewish leaders taught that the disciples had stolen his body. [TJ]

The next ancient, non-biblical source, like yesterday, comes from a Jewish source as well. However, this Jewish source is not considered very reliable, but it is being included to show that at least one item of information contained in other ancient sources lived on for several centuries after the event of the empty tomb.

The Toledoth Jesu is a Jewish document that refers to both Jesus and his body after he had died and was buried in Joseph's tomb. According to the document, a gardener named Juda knew of the plot by the disciples to steal Jesus' body from the tomb. Rather than allow this to happen, he went and dug a new grave in his garden, retrieved Jesus' body from Joseph's tomb, and reburied him in his newly dug grave. When the disciples showed up at Joseph's tomb and discovered it empty, they declared that Jesus had been resurrected. When the Jewish leaders investigated and saw that the tomb was empty, Juda took them to the grave he had buried Jesus in and dug up the body for them. Then Juda sold Jesus' dead body to the Jewish leaders for thirty pieces of silver and the Jewish leaders dragged Jesus' body through the streets of Jerusalem.

It is important to keep in mind that this document was compiled around the fifth century AD, though Jewish scholars do not find this document reliable. However, it does trace at least one early tradition dating back to Matthew's gospel (70-85 A.D.)[1]: the claim that the disciples stole the body.

The claim that the disciples stole the body as an explanation for the Jewish leaders does show their active and persistent concern that they attempt to provide an alternate explanation for what happened to the body. Around 150 A.D., Justin Martyr wrote that the Jewish leaders had certain men trained to travel around the Mediterranean world and Rome giving this explanation for the empty tomb. Tertullian confirms this around 200 A.D.[2]

If nothing else, then at least the following information can be taken from this late, unreliable story:

1. Jesus died and was buried in Joseph's tomb.
2. The Jewish leaders taught that the disciples had stolen his body.

1. Matthew 28:11-15
2. Habermas, Gary R. The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ. Joplin, MO: College Press Publishing, 2008, 205-206.

Moving along in the series I will now look at two Jewish sources that make mention of Jesus and His followers. The first source this post will deal with is the Talmud.

For some short and quick history the Talmud is a combination of the Mishnah and the Gemaras. The Mishnah is a collection of oral tradition that was written down and organized by subject matter. The Gemaras is the commentary of the Mishnah. The quotation that mentions Jesus is found in the Babylonian Talmud in the location Sanhedrin 43a.

On the eve of the Passover Yeshu was hanged. For forty days before the execution took place, a herald went forth and cried, 'He is going forth to be stoned because he has practiced sorcery and enticed Israel to apostasy. Any one who can say anything in his favour, let him come forward and plead on his behalf.' But since nothing was brought forward in his favour he was hanged on the eve of the Passover![1]

What we can gather from this short passage is the following facts[2]:

1. Jesus' death was by crucifixion (hanging).
2. The time of this event was on the eve of Passover.
3. For a forty day period it was announced that Jesus would be stoned. This is consistent with Jewish practice and though it is not recorded explicitly in the New Testament, there seem to be glimpses of this being recorded (John 8:58-59; 10:31-33, 39).
4. Jesus was judged to be guilty of "sorcery" and spiritual apostasy in leading Israel astray by  his teaching.
5. He lacked anyone coming to his defense and as a result he was killed.

1. Habermas, Gary R. The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ. Joplin, MO: College Press Publishing, 2008, 202-205.
2. Ibid.

The last few posts have looked at three Roman government officials who recorded mentioned some information about either Jesus or his followers. Those three officials are Pliny the Younger [P], Emperor Trajan [Tr], and Emperor Hadrian [H]. Below is a summary of the last few posts and what they wrote:

1. Christ was worshipped as a deity by early believers. [P]
2. The teachings of Jesus were called "excessive superstition" and "contagious superstition." [P]
3. Jesus' ethical teachings are reflected as an oath taken by Christians never to be guilty of a number of sins. [P]
4. There is a possible reference to communion and the Christian celebration of the "love feast" which is their regathering and partaking of ordinary food. [P]
5. A possible reference to Sunday worship since Pliny says they met "on a certain day." [P]
6. Christians were identifiable by their worship practice and what they refused to worship. [P]
7. True believers could not be forced to worship the gods or the emperor. [P]
8. Christian worship involved a pre-dawn service. [P]
9. Christian worship included the singing of hymns. [P]
10. Christians came from all classes, ages, localities, and sexes. [P]
11. There was structure and positions in the church as inferred by the mention of two deaconesses. [P]
12. Christians were frequently reported as lawbreakers in Asia and were punished in various ways. [P, H]
13. The emperors encouraged a certain amount of tolerance and ordered that they not be harassed. [Tr, H]
14. Christians could only be found guilty and punished after careful examination. [Tr, H]
15. Undocumented charges were not to be heard or brought against Christians. Anyone doing so would be punished instead. [H]

Tomorrow will begin looking at two Jewish sources and what they had to say about Jesus and his followers.